Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 10

Case Study Example However, in order to provide the required services to its customers, C&S had to raise its operational costs shrink its margins and improve its customer’s relationship management. This also forced Cohen to hire more employees; thus, leading to coordination issues. The coordination issues led to the need of hiring more supervisors than before. The result was overcrowding in the workspace. The employees were mare exposed to accidents due to congestion. Eventually, the employee morale lowered, and there was an increase in turnover. Thus, in order to solve these problems, Cohen thought it wise to in cooperate the concept of â€Å"self managed teams.† C&S is currently facing a difficulty in controlling its operations. The number of employees has increased due to the increase in workload. Having won the deal to be the sole wholesaler to A&P, C&S is currently in a state of inefficiency. The workplace overcrowded, and risks of injuries have risen. The working hours have increased, and the morale of the employees has reduced due to the workload thy have to do each day, leaving them very tired at the end of the day. Cohen is challenged on what to do. He is not sure of whether the method of self managed team is a brilliant idea, or not. The current situation is one of doubts and confusion. Work at C&S is perfect if handled properly. The fact that they have won a huge customer on their side shows the enormous opportunity for the company to make more profit, and win more clients. However, the strategy of how to handle the work is what is missing. Employing more people means spending more money. For a company to succeed there has to be a way by which the management ensures that more money is made as compared to what is spent. However, in C&S, it seems a lot of money is being spent in hiring more employees. This situation is a remarkably convenient opportunity to use self managed team. A self managed team would help in the reduction of the supervisors

Unit 4 Discussion Board Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Unit 4 Discussion Board - Essay Example Creating the sort of association with the followers probably derive all other associated activities with leadership. In this regard, it therefore not matter whether we need a new generation of leadership as well as new gender. As long as leadership can and should associate itself with the followers, there arises hardly a need to argue for a shift in the ways leadership is pursued and practiced. Though it has been argued that leadership has been viewed and studied with respect to the masculinity (-Metcalfe, 2002) however this is not the fact in its entirety. It must be noted that almost all the leadership whether in the corporate world or in political world was masculine and it was probably because of this reason that the leadership has mostly being studied within that context. In order to be an effective leader, there are various personal traits and qualities which a leader must have in order to be effective. These include from motivating the employees to making decisions of strategic nature. However, these traits are not gender specific in nature however there are certain attributes specific to both male and female leaders which both make them effective in their fields and leadership is largely gender neutral. (Gedney, 1999). However historically the evolution of leadership theories started with the focus on the masculine characteristics of the leaders. The so called Great Man theories of 1930s and 1940s greatly emphasized on the personal characteristics of the leaders including their intelligence, personal charisma etc. The great man theories largely emphasized on the role of males into the leadership however that was an era where there were very few opportunities left for the women to participate into the mainstream economy. Lack of opportunity was the refore the main reason behind the development of theoretical framework which were largely focusing on the masculine characteristics o f the leaders. This has historical connotations also because the

Impact of Economics in Political and Social Change

Impact of Economics in Political and Social Change Please use the following three reasons to explain why economics is the most important factor in the globalisation process that has been used in relation to a host of social, economic, cultural and political factors. The impact of economic globalisation in the form of the international division of labour (growth of industry in China, India, etc and the deindustrialization of sections of the so-called developed societies). Moreover, the significance of migrant labour. The relative size and importance of MNCs as economic agents (as compared with nation states). Point to the centrality of economic matters in the relations between governments, to the importance of the growth of the cultural economy in relation to cultural globalisation. 1. In a world without an international division of labour, each individual state would have to provide itself with all its needs. It would need to grow every fruit, herb, cereal and vegetable; to rear its own animals; to manufacture its own products; to extract all its own minerals and energy; to provide all its own financial, domestic and professional services; to engage in its own research, exchanging ideas only among its own academics and developing only those new products designed exclusively within its own borders; and of course it would have to train a labour-force capable of sustaining these multifarious tasks. Even the U.S., bountiful in natural resources and with an educated labour force, would struggle to do this. And of course there is no need to. The very same logic underpinning the domestic division of labour – saving labour by sharing divisible tasks among specialists – provides an argument in favour of extending that division internationally. Ideally thos e states with endless acres of pampas (Argentina) would provide the world’s meat; those with plenty of spare ground would farm for vegetables, flowers, fruit (Zambia); those highly educated (the U.S., Scandinavia) would do the research; and those densely populated and not as highly educated would provide the industry (China, India). This is ‘ideal’ from the perspective of efficient production; and only for now: there is no reason (from the point of view of efficiency) why China should not in time overtake the U.S. as the world’s research base, forcing Americans into the factories. We are moving towards this ideal, but there seem to be two main reasons why it has not been reached. Firstly, in spite of their avowed commitment to free trade and their exhortations to developing countries to open their markets, Western nations have been reluctant to cede total management of their domestic economies to the global market. This is because their constituents wish t o retain traditional industries; hence the protectionist rows over the C.A.P. in Europe (particularly in the traditionally agricultural states of France and Ireland) and over cotton and steel in the U.S. Consequently the international ‘division’ is neither efficient nor equitable. Secondly, a fair international division of labour would entail rather different prices for goods, for example food, energy and research and development. This is contrary to the interest of those currently benefiting most from the international economy, the Western states. So we have a qualified international division of labour. But even so, the extraordinary importance of several developing nations is beginning to be felt. China, India and Brazil now account for a significant share of international trade, and consequently wield increasing influence in international trade negotiations and supranational organisations (e.g. WTO, WB, IMF). 2. It is well known that the turnovers of many multinational corporations are larger than the GDPs of many developing nations. Of the top 100 economies in the world, roughly half are corporations. Wal-Mart is bigger than 161 states, including Israel, Poland and Greece. Mitsubishi is larger than Indonesia; General Motors than Denmark; Toyota than Norway. Hyperglobalists such as Ohmae (Held, 1999) argue that we are witnessing the restructuring of the international system from the Westphalian system in which states were rule makers to a post-Westphalian era in which states are frequently rule takers. In this new era not just states but MNCs as well as sub-, trans- and supra-state actors increasingly determine the outcome of international relations. Thus Ruggie has argued that there has been an ‘unbundling’ of the relation between sovereignty, territoriality and state power (1998). Sceptics such as Hirst and Thompson, however, deny such heady claims (Held 1999) . They argue that states are the architects of globalisation, and its chief beneficiaries. They point to the ability of even developing nations such as China to manage information flows into their country (c.f. deal with Google to censor web-searches), and such as Bolivia to renationalise private international energy firms (in favour of the state-owned Yacimientos Petrolà ­feros Fiscales Bolivianos (YPFB)). Moreover most putatively ‘multinational’ corporations are strongly rooted in their home state. Most corporations invest heavily in their national market, maintain almost exclusively national board members, are subject to mainly national legislation and in the case of financial crisis are often saved by their national governments.[1] Even those corporations that do conduct the majority of their operations internationally are generally managed from home; in 1992 for example, Nestle conducted 92% of its trade internationally but limited nonSwiss voting rights to 3% of the total.[2] In short, sceptics argue that although large, MNCs are not unruly: they are the creatures of their national governments. The truth seems to lie somewhere in between. Held has argued for a ‘transformationalist’ account of the relationship between MNCs and states, which recognises the novelty of the international system without denying that the new arrangement is still state-centred (1999). On this view, MNCs do have new authority and power issuing from their relation to new international networks and their increasing hard power, but they are nevertheless answerable to elected governmental control. 3. To coincide with Tony Blair’s visit to New Delhi, Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh unveiled a  £1.2bn India Airlines order for 43 Airbus jets.[3] Such is a very common phenomenon, and not only confirms the thoughts above but shows the symbolic significance of healthy economic relations between states. Scholars point to the significance of two sources of power in international relations. ‘Hard power’ is the ability to coerce others to bring about your preferred outcomes by means of military or economic threats or rewards (Nye 2005). Realists argue that international relations are determined by the distribution of hard power resources, which ‘balances’ the various international actors’ expectations (Nye 2005). In this era, with both nuclear weapons and increasingly significant global pacifistic norms, the importance of military power is waning. Economic force now trumps military force in hard power efficacy. But, as suggested, normative resources are increasingly significant. ‘Soft power’ is the ability to realise preferred outcomes by getting others to want what you want; to co-opt rather than coerce (Nye 2005). A state’s interests will be more attractive if the national culture is perceived to be benign. Until the Iraq War, for example, the norms and culture of the U.S. – liberty, democracy and equality – were held in sufficiently high international regard to sanction a number of controversial U.S. foreign policies. Since the perceived injustices in that conflict U.S. negotiating power has diminished. From this we can extract two points. Firstly it is clear that even the U.S.’s overwhelming military predominance cannot ensure its preferred international outcomes. Secondly international normative interdependence ensures that soft power –perceivedly benign intent – and hence the content of a state’s culture increasingly determines the effectiveness of th at state’s international ambitions. Bibliography Held, D., 1999. Global Transformations. London: Polity Press. Nye, J., 2005. Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. London: Public Affairs. Morgenthau, H., 1992, Politics Among Nations. New York: McGraw Hill Publishing. Ruggie, J.G., 1998. Constructing the World Polity: Essays on International Institutionalisation. New York: Routledge. Waltz, K., 1979, Theory of International Politics. New York: McGraw Hill Publishing. 1 [1] Information from http://www.rcgfrfi.easynet.co.uk/marxism/articles/glob131.htm. Accessed 07 August 2006. [2] Ibid. [3] Information from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4221678.stm. Accessed 07 August 2006.

Abortion - Denying the Undeniable Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive To

Denying the Undeniable      Ã‚   Grief after induced abortion is often more profound and delayed than grief after other perinatal losses. Grief after elective abortion is uniquely poignant because it is largely hidden. The post-abortion woman's grief is not acknowledged by society because the reality of her child's death is not acknowledged. In order to gain her consent for the abortion she has been told that the procedure will remove a "blob of tissue" a "product of conception", or a "pre-embryo." She has been assured that her "problem will be solved" and that she will be able to "get on with her life" as though nothing significant had happened. Yet the pregnant woman knows by the changes in her body that something very significant is happening to her: her menses have stopped, her breasts are enlarging, she is sick in the morning (or all day long), and she knows that the process which has begun in her will most likely result in the birth of a baby in nine months time if allowed to run its course. She is aware of the expected date of delivery and she has often thought of a name for her baby as she has begun to picture the child as he or she would be at birth (Bonding begins very early in pregnancy.). All of these feelings and fantasies about her pregnancy must be denied in order to undergo an elective abortion. The pregnant woman is asked to deny the fact that she is carrying a child at all!    Theresa Bonopartis relates her true story in her book, Divine Mercy In My Soul:    I could feel the baby thrashing around as his skin and lungs were burned by the saline. He was dying. Labor began. After twelve hours of labor, alone in the room, I gave birth to a dead baby boy. I looked at his tiny feet and hands. All... ...hat they have committed 'the unforgivable sin' and fear God's anger.    Women who have had an abortion often have many questions, the answers to which are indispensable to beginning the healing journey. Can God ever forgive me? Can my child? Can I ever forgive myself? Will the Church let me stay when I confess this sin? Will this horrible pain ever go away? Is healing possible? The answer to all these questions is, of course, YES!    WORKS CITED    "Aftermath." http://www.hopeafterabortion.com/hope.cfm?sel=A31Q    Bishops, US Catholic. "Bishops' Official Notes Coverage of Post-Abortion Program." http://www.nccbuscc.org/comm/archives/00-084.htm    Bonopartis, Theresa. Divine Mercy In MY Soul. http://www.hopeafterabortion.org/hope.cfm?sel=C18L    "Stories of Healing." http://www.hopeafterabortion.com/hope.cfm?sel=JHY7

If Winter Comes Can Spring Be Far Behind? Essay

If Winter Comes Can Spring be far behind? – Essay (free to read). This is the last line of Shelley’s famous poem: â€Å"Ode to the West Wind.† The poet depicts the terrible effect of the west wind in different spheres. The line is an epitome of optimism. Though for the present the cold winter be the ruler all around, yet the very approach of winter means the impending arrival of the spring season soon after win-ter. Winter must at last come to an end. It must be followed by the colorful spring which brings colorful flowers and bird’s sweet songs. After all, the circle of seasons must continue moving unhindered. Day is followed by night and night by day. Similarly, in life every period of sorrow and despair has at last to come to end. It is followed by a period of peace, comfort and joy. We must have a firm belief in the good ¬ness of things and have a strong self-confi ¬dence. There is no occasion for feeling dis ¬mayed. â€Å"If hopes are dupes, fears may be liars.† The best attitude in life is that of an optimistic stoic. Joys and sorrows should be treated in their own stride. They should be given equal treatment. Robert Browning w- s a highly optimistic poet. He had another way of looking at things. If he ever had to face failure in life, he consoled himself by telling himself that he will get his reward or success in heaven or in the next life. One famous psychologist of France taught the men the art of auto-suggestion. He advised them to say unto themselves: â€Å"Every day in every way. I get better and better.† Auto Suggestion for a better and happier life is the great art in modern day life which modern psychology has given to us. WEB. Yeats, the famous poet of early twentieth century says, â€Å"Cast a cold eye on life, on death, Horseman passes by!† Thus, we must rest assured that our sorrows, if any, are short-lived and a period of joy awaits us.

Organic Farming Business Proposal

PB B A S E M E S T E R V I ORGANIC FARMING PROPOSAL GROUP 6 Iftekhar Ansari, Mujtaba Yameen, Priyamvada Panicker, Akbote Shiva, Vikas D, Jayadev B BBA †¢ Semester VI †¢ Group VI†¢ Organic Farming B B A S E M E S T E R V I BBA †¢ Semester VI †¢ Group VI†¢ Organic Farming Organic Farming Introduction Organic farming is the form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost and biological pest control.Organic farming uses fertilizers and pesticides but excludes or strictly limits the use of manufactured (synthetic) fertilizers, pesticides (which include herbicides, insecticides and fungicides), plant growth regulators such as hormones, livestock antibiotics, food additives, genetically modi? d organisms, human sewage sludge, and nanomaterials Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated and legally enforced by many nations, based in large part on the standards set by the International Federation of Organ ic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), an international umbrella organization for organic farming organizations established in 1972. IFOAM de? nes the overarching goal of organic farming as: â€Å"Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people.It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to bene? t the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved†¦ † —International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements Since 1990, the market for organic products has grown from nothing, reaching $55 billion in 2009 according to Organic Monitor (www. organicmonitor. com).This demand has driven a similar increase in organically managed farmland which has grown over the past decade at a compounding rate of 8. 9% per annum. [5] A pproximately 37,000,000 hectares (91,000,000 acres) worldwide are now farmed organically, representing approximately 0. 9 percent of total world farmland (2009) History Organic farming (of many particular kinds) was the original type of agriculture, and has been practiced for thousands of years. Forest gardening, a fully organic food production system which dates from prehistoric times, is thought to be the world's oldest and most resilient agroecosystem.After the industrial revolution had introduced inorganic methods, some of which were not well developed and had serious side effects, an organic movement began in the mid-1920s in Central Europe through the work of Rudolf Steiner, who created biodynamic agriculture, an early version of organic agriculture. Organic agriculture was independently developed in the 1940s England through the work of Albert Howard as a reaction to agriculture's growing reliance on synthetic fertilizers. Arti? ial fertilizers had been created during the 18t h century, initially with superphosphates and then ammonia-based fertilizers mass-produced using the Haber-Bosch process developed during World War I. These early fertilizers were cheap, powerful, and easy to transport in bulk. Similar advances occurred in chemical pesticides in the 1940s, leading to the decade being referred to as the ‘pesticide era'. Although organic farming is prehistoric in the widest sense, Sir Albert Howard is widely considered to be the â€Å"father of organic farming† in the sense that he was a key founder of the post-industrial-revolution organic movement.Further work was done by J. I. Rodale in the United States, Lady Eve Balfour in the United Kingdom, and many others across the world. The ? rst lectures and publications on organic agriculture stem from Rudolf Steiner, however, whose Lectures on Agriculture were published in 1925. The modern organic movement is a revival movement in the sense that it seeks to restore balance that was lost when technology grew rapidly in the 19th and 20th centuries. Modern organic farming has made up only a fraction of total agricultural output from its beginning until today.Increasing environmental awareness in the general population has transformed the originally supply-driven movement to a demand-driven one. Premium prices and some government subsidies attracted farmers. In the developing world, many G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 1 producers farm according to traditional methods which are comparable to organic farming but are not certi? ed. In other cases, farmers in the developing world have converted for economic reasons Methods Soil management Plants need nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, as well as micronutrients and symbiotic relationships with fungi and other organisms to ? urish, but getting enough nitrogen, and particularly synchronization so that plants get enough nitrogen at the right time (when plants need it most), is likely the greatest challenge for organic farmers. C rop rotation and green manure (â€Å"cover crops†) help to provide nitrogen through legumes (more precisely, the Fabaceae family) which ? x nitrogen from the atmosphere through symbiosis with rhizobial bacteria. Intercropping, which is sometimes used for insect and disease control, can also increase soil nutrients, but the competition between the legume and the crop can be problematic and wider spacing between crop rows is required.Crop residues can be ploughed back into the soil, and different plants leave different amounts of nitrogen, potentially aiding synchronization. Organic farmers also use animal manure, certain processed fertilizers such as seed meal and various mineral powders such as rock phosphate and greensand, a naturally occurring form of potash which provides potassium. Together these methods help to control erosion. In some cases pH may need to be amended. Natural pH amendments include lime and sulfur, but in the U. S. ome compounds such as iron sulfate, alum inum sulfate, magnesium sulfate, and soluble boron products are allowed in oganic farming. Mixed farms with both livestock and crops can operate as ley farms, whereby the land gathers fertility through growing nitrogen-? xing forage grasses such as white clover or alfalfa and grows cash crops or cereals when fertility is established. Farms without livestock (â€Å"stockless†) may ? nd it more dif? cult to maintain fertility, and may rely more on external inputs such as imported manure as well as grain legumes and green manures, although grain legumes may ? limited nitrogen because they are harvested. Horticultural farms growing fruits and vegetables which operate in protected conditions are often even more reliant upon external inputs. Biological research on soil and soil organisms has proven bene? cial to organic farming. Varieties of bacteria and fungi break down chemicals, plant matter and animal waste into productive soil nutrients. In turn, they produce bene? ts of healt hier yields and more productive soil for future crops. Fields with less or no manure display signi? antly lower yields, due to decreased soil microbe community, providing a healthier, more arable soil system Weed management Organic weed management promotes weed suppression, rather than weed elimination, by enhancing crop competition and phytotoxic effects on weeds. Organic farmers integrate cultural, biological, mechanical, physical and chemical tactics to manage weeds without synthetic herbicides. Organic standards require rotation of annual crops, meaning that a single crop cannot be grown in the same location without a different, intervening crop.Organic crop rotations frequently include weed-suppressive cover crops and crops with dissimilar life cycles to discourage weeds associated with a particular crop. Organic farmers strive to increase soil organic matter content, which can support microorganisms that destroy common weed seeds. Other cultural practices used to enhance crop competitiveness and reduce weed pressure include selection of competitive crop varieties, high-density planting, tight row spacing, and late planting into warm soil to encourage rapid crop germination.Mechanical and physical weed control practices used on organic farms can be broadly grouped as: Tillage – Turning the soil between crops to incorporate crop residues and soil amendments; remove existing weed growth and prepare a seedbed for planting; G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 2 Cultivation – Disturbing the soil after seeding; Mowing and cutting – Removing top growth of weeds; Flame weeding and thermal weeding – Using heat to kill weeds; and Mulching – Blocking weed emergence with organic materials, plastic ? lms, or landscape fabric. Some naturally sourced chemicals are allowed for herbicidal use.These include certain formulations of acetic acid (concentrated vinegar), corn gluten meal, and essential oils. A few selective bioherbicides based on f ungal pathogens have also been developed. At this time, however, organic herbicides and bioherbicides play a minor role in the organic weed control toolbox. Weeds can be controlled by grazing. For example, geese have been used successfully to weed a range of organic crops including cotton, strawberries, tobacco, and corn, reviving the practice of keeping cotton patch geese, common in the southern U.S. before the 1950s. Similarly, some rice farmers introduce ducks and ? sh to wet paddy ? elds to eat both weeds and insects. Controlling other organisms Organisms aside from weeds that cause problems on organic farms include arthropods (e. g. , insects, mites), nematodes, fungi and bacteria. Organic farmers use a wide range of Integrated Pest Management practices to prevent pests and diseases. These include, but are not limited to, crop rotation and nutrient management; sanitation to remove pest habitat; provision of habitat for bene? ial organisms; selection of pest-resistant crops and animals; crop protection using physical barriers, such as row covers; and crop diversi? cation through companion planting or establishment of polycultures. Organic farmers often depend on biological pest control, the use of bene? cial organisms to reduce pest populations. Examples of bene? cial insects include minute pirate bugs, big-eyed bugs, and to a lesser extent ladybugs (which tend to ? y away), all of which eat a wide range of pests. Lacewings are also effective, but tend to ? y away. Praying mantis tend to move more slowly and eat less heavily.Parasitoid wasps tend to be effective for their selected prey, but like all small insects can be less effective outdoors because the wind controls their movement. Predatory mites are effective for controlling other mites. When these practices are insuf? cient to prevent or control pests an organic farmer may apply a pesticide. With some exceptions, naturally occurring pesticides are allowed for use on organic farms, and synthetic subst ances are prohibited. Pesticides with different modes of action should be rotated to minimize development of pesticide resistance.Naturally derived insecticides allowed for use on organic farms use include Bacillus thuringiensis (a bacterial toxin), pyrethrum (a chrysanthemum extract), spinosad (a bacterial metabolite), neem (a tree extract) and rotenone (a legume root extract). These are sometimes called green pesticides because they are generally, but not necessarily, safer and more environmentally friendly than synthetic pesticides. Rotenone and pyrethrum are particularly controversial because they work by attacking the nervous system, like most conventional insecticides.Fewer than 10% of organic farmers use these pesticides regularly; one survey found that only 5. 3% of vegetable growers in California use rotenone while 1. 7% use pyrethrum (Lotter 2003:26). Naturally derived fungicides allowed for use on organic farms include the bacteria Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus pumilus; and the fungus Trichoderma harzianum. These are mainly effective for diseases affecting roots. Agricultural Research Service scientists have found that caprylic acid, a naturally occurring fatty acid in milk and coconuts, as well as G r o u p V I!Organic Farming 3 other natural plant extracts have antimicrobial characteristics that can help. Compost tea contains a mix of bene? cial microbes, which may attack or out-compete certain plant pathogens, but variability among formulations and preparation methods may contribute to inconsistent results or even dangerous growth of toxic microbes in compost teas. Some naturally derived pesticides are not allowed for use on organic farms. These include nicotine sulfate, arsenic, and strychnine. Synthetic pesticides allowed for use on organic arms include insecticidal soaps and horticultural oils for insect management; and Bordeaux mixture, copper hydroxide and sodium bicarbonate for managing fungi. Genetic modi? cation A key characteristic of o rganic farming is the rejection of genetically engineered plants and animals. On October 19, 1998, participants at IFOAM's 12th Scienti? c Conference issued the Mar del Plata Declaration, where more than 600 delegates from over 60 countries voted unanimously to exclude the use of genetically modi? ed organisms in food production and agriculture.Although opposition to the use of any transgenic technologies in organic farming is strong, agricultural researchers Luis Herrera-Estrella and Ariel Alvarez-Morales continue to advocate integration of transgenic technologies into organic farming as the optimal means to sustainable agriculture, particularly in the developing world. [32] Similarly, some organic farmers question the rationale behind the ban on the use of genetically engineered seed because they view this kind of biotechnology consistent with organic principles. Although GMOs are excluded from organic farming, there is concern that the pollen from genetically modi? d crops is inc reasingly penetrating organic and heirloom seed stocks, making it dif? cult, if not impossible, to keep these genomes from entering the organic food supply. International trade restrictions limit the availability GMOs to certain countries. The hazards that genetic modi? cation could pose to the environment are hotly contested Economics The economics of organic farming, a sub? eld of agricultural economics, encompasses the entire process and effects of organic farming in terms of human society, including social costs, opportunity costs, unintended consequences, information asymmetries, and economies of scale.Although the scope of economics is broad, agricultural economics tends to focus on maximizing yields and ef? ciency at the farm level. Economics takes an anthropocentric approach to the value of the natural world: biodiversity, for example, is considered bene? cial only to the extent that it is valued by people and increases pro? ts. Some entities such as the European Union subsi dize organic farming, in large part because these countries want to account for the externalities of reduced water use, reduced water contamination, reduced soil erosion, reduced carbon emissions, increased biodiversity, and assorted other bene? s that result from organic farming. Traditional organic farming is labor and knowledge-intensive whereas conventional farming is capital-intensive, requiring more energy and manufactured inputs. Organic farmers in California have cited marketing as their greatest obstacle. G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 4 Geographic producer distribution The markets for organic products are strongest in North America and Europe, which as of 2001 are estimated to have $6 and $8 billion respectively of the $20 billion global market (Lotter 2003:6).As of 2007 Australasia has 39% of the total organic farmland, including Australia's 1,180,000 hectares (2,900,000 acres) but 97 percent of this land is sprawling rangeland (2007:35). US sales are 20x as much. (2003). Europe farms 23 percent of global organic farmland (6. 9 million hectares), followed by Latin America with 19 percent (5. 8 million hectares). Asia has 9. 5 percent while North America has 7. 2 percent. Africa has 3 percent. Besides Australia, the countries with the most organic farmland are Argentina (3. 1 million hectares), China (2. 3 million hectares), and the United States (1. million hectares). Much of Argentina's organic farmland is pasture, like that of Australia (2007). Italy, Spain, Germany, Brazil (the world's largest agricultural exporter), Uruguay, and the UK follow the United States in the amount of organic land (2007). Growth Organic farmland by world region (2000-2008) As of 2001, the estimated market value of certi? ed organic products was estimated to be $20 billion. By 2002 this was $23 billion and by 2007 more than $46 billion. In recent years both Europe (2007: 7. 8 million hectares, European Union: 7. 2 million hectares) and North America (2007: 2. million hec tares) have experienced strong growth in organic farmland. In the EU it grew by 21% in the period 2005 to 2008. However, this growth has occurred under different conditions. While the European Union has shifted agricultural subsidies to organic farmers due to perceived environmental bene? ts, the United States has not, continuing to subsidize some but not all traditional commercial crops, such as corn and sugar. As a result of this policy difference, as of 2008 4. 1% G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 5 percent of European Union farmland was organically managed compared to the 0. 6 percent in the U. S.IFOAM's most recent edition of The World of Organic Agriculture: Statistics and Emerging Trends 2009 lists the countries which had the most hectares in 2007. The country with the most organic land is Australia with more than 12 million hectares, followed by Argentina, Brazil and the US. In total 32. 2 million hectares were under organic management in 2007. For 1999 11 million hectares of o rganically managed land are reported. As organic farming becomes a major commercial force in agriculture, it is likely to gain increasing impact on national agricultural policies and confront some of the scaling challenges faced by conventional agriculture.Productivity and pro? tability Various studies ? nd that versus conventional agriculture, organic crops yielded 91%, or 95-100%, along with 50% lower expenditure on fertilizer and energy, and 97% less pesticides, or 100% for corn and soybean, consuming less energy and zero pesticides. The results were attributed to lower yields in average and good years but higher yields during drought years. A 2007 study compiling research from 293 different comparisons into a single study to assess the overall ef? ciency of the two agricultural systems has concluded that †¦ rganic methods could produce enough food on a global per capita basis to sustain the current human population, and potentially an even larger population, without increas ing the agricultural land base. (from the abstract) Converted organic farms have lower pre-harvest yields than their conventional counterparts in developed countries (92%) but higher than their low-intensity counterparts in developing countries (132%). This is due to relatively lower adoption of fertilizers and pesticides in the developing world compared to the intensive farming of the developed world. G r o u p V I! Organic Farming Organic farms withstand severe weather conditions better than conventional farms, sometimes yielding 70-90% more than conventional farms during droughts. Organic farms are more pro? table in the drier states of the United States, likely due to their superior drought performance. Organic farms survive hurricane damage much better, retaining 20 to 40% more topsoil and smaller economic losses at highly signi? cant levels than their neighbors. Contrary to widespread belief, organic farming can build up soil organic matter better than conventional no-till far ming, which suggests long-term yield bene? s from organic farming. [56] An 18-year study of organic methods on nutrientdepleted soil, concluded that conventional methods were superior for soil fertility and yield in a cold-temperate climate, arguing that much of the bene? ts from organic farming are derived from imported materials which could not be regarded as â€Å"self-sustaining†. Pro? tability The decreased cost of synthetic fertilizer and pesticide inputs, along with the higher prices that consumers pay for organic produce, contribute to increased pro? ts. Organic farms have been consistently found to be as or more pro? table than conventional farms.Without the price premium, pro? tability is mixed. Organic production was more pro? table in Wisconsin, given price premiums. Sustainability (African case) In 2008 the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) stated that â€Å"organic agriculture can b e more conducive to food security in Africa than most conventional production systems, and that it is more likely to be sustainable in the long-term†[60] and that â€Å"yields had more than doubled where organic, or near-organic practices had been used† and that soil fertility and drought resistance improved.Employment impact Organic methods often require more labor than traditional farming, therefore it provides rural jobs. G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 7 Sales and marketing Most sales are concentrated in developed nations. These products are what economists call credence goods in that they rely on uncertain certi? cation. Interest in organic products dropped between 2006 and 2008, and 42% of Americans polled don't trust organic produce. 69% of Americans claim to occasionally buy organic products, down from 73% in 2005.One theory was that consumers were substituting â€Å"local† produce for â€Å"organic† produce. Distributors In the United States, 75% o f organic farms are smaller than 2. 5 hectares. In California 2% of the farms account for over half of sales. (Lotter 2003) Small farms join together in cooperatives such as Organic Valley, Inc. to market their goods more effectively. Most small cooperative distributors have merged or were acquired by large multinationals such as General Mills, Heinz, ConAgra, Kellogg, and others. In 1982 there were 28 consumer cooperative distributors, but as of 2007 only 3 remained.This consolidation has raised concerns among consumers and journalists of potential fraud and degradation in standards. Most sell their organic products through subsidiaries, under other labels. Organic foods also can be a niche in developing nations. It would provide more money and a better opportunity to compete internationally with the huge distributors. Organic prices are much more stable than conventional foods, and the small farms can still compete and have similar prices with the much larger farms that usually ta ke all of the pro? ts. Farmers' markets Price premiums are important for the pro? ability of small organic farmers. Farmers selling directly to consumers at farmers' markets have continued to achieve these higher returns. In the United States the number of farmers' markets tripled from 1,755 in 1994 to 5,274 in 2009 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 8 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 9 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 10 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 11 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 12 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 13 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 14 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 15 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 16 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 17SWOT ANALYSIS OF INDIAN ORGANIC AGRICULTURE (DOMESTIC AND EXPORT MARKET) Organic farming is one such part of agriculture sector which is unexploited yet. The projects strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats are discussed below: STRENGTHS: Export of organic produce from India is on the rise With organic farming, comes greater nutrit ional value and better taste There is increased awareness for healthy food in the present generation The realization of the harmful effects of pesticides and presence of their residues is surfacing The international and national certi? ation bodies in the country that are making it easier for the farmers to certify their produce as â€Å"organic† With increased demand, Central and State Governments are providing more land at cheaper rates for Organic Agriculture The Government is also providing higher subsidies Tax holidays are given a higher priority and are being given to the farmers who produce organics Organic produce being a premium product, pro? ratios will be towards the higher end due to the higher prices Sustainability over the long term There is an enhanced soil structure and water in? ltration Reduces non-renewable energy use by decreasing agrochemical needs (these require high quantities of fossil fuel to be produced by reducing carbon levels in the soil) OA promo tes biodiversity at all levels of production Duration of the edibility is longer G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 18 Drought resistive in nature A major strength is that the only technology OA needs is more of the SUNWEAKNESSES: Lack of awareness is the major downside of Organic Agriculture Not only among the customers but also among the farmers Most farmers have small holdings Quality consciousness is low amongst them Lack of marketing skills (mainly due to the disjoint between the agricultural sector and its domestic market not to mention the international market) The market for organics is not consumer-based, but supply oriented There is lower productivity due to the mono-cultured farming Fields may become bland due to the lack or inorganic additives Industrialized agriculture (if a conversion to organic agriculture takes place) exploits the land to an extent where the soil loses its fertility Sowing of seeds is time consuming since direct drilling of seeds (as done in the traditio nal form of agriculture) increases risk of soil being lost to wind and erosion There is no usage of genetically modi? ed seeds Another major drawback is the time required for the interaction and the observation between the farmer and his crop A requirement for OA is using skilled labor, which is hard to ? nd Finding the speci? c seeds are not only time consuming, but also more expensive Being more supply oriented, it requires a larger workforce to look after it G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 19 OPPORTUNITIES: With the ever growing society and economy in the country and in the world, the growth potential for Organic Agriculture is enormous As of 2001, the estimated market value of certi? ed organic products was estimated to be $20 billion.By 2002 this was $23 billion and by 2007 more than $46 billion and still showing a positive trend Along with the market value, the total farmland assigned for OA is also increasing massively The government is also starting to believe in this form of farming, hence giving its consent for extensive practice throughout the country The Indian Competence Centre of Organic Agriculture (ICCOA) is a promising initiative towards OA and serves as a platform for various activities related to its market development With the continuous growth of the sector, it will be providing a vast number of job opportunities OA helps in making people less reliant on generically modi? ed food and moves them towards healthier living The market for organic fertilizers and other organic materials is also growing and making it easier for the farmers to get hold of all the supplies they need G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 20 THREATS: Dishonesty among the suppliers of the raw materials required, i. e products offered with declarations such as â€Å"without pesticides†, â€Å"organic† etc.Unavailability of actual organic materials such as seeds, fertilizers and more High costs of being a premium product may prevent success in the market Hesitatio n for purchase by customers due to lack of awareness Land may be to contaminated or may not be convertible for organic agriculture Training unskilled labor may be tougher than expected Although governments are cooperating for organic farming, some state governments still believe this method is unproductive and may not give the required permissions and grants Lives of organic farmers are being made dif? cult by large food conglomerates as they want the consumers to focus only on their products Unpredictable Climatic Factors G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 21 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 22 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 23 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 24 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 25 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 26 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 27 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 28 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 29 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 30 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 31G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 32 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 33 G r o u p V I! Organic Farm ing 34 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 35 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 36 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 37 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 38 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 39 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 40 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 41 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 42 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 43 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 44 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 45 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 46 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 47 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 48 G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 49 APPENDIX Excerpts from our interview with Mr.Samad Patel, Assistant Director, The Department of Agriculture, Gulbarga, Karnataka M: How is the Government helping in Organic Farming? S: Organic missions are being formed by the governement to promote organic farming amongst the farming community. 1: Organic Village: It is one of the schemes which promotes organic farming in a hundred acre area in a village per block on a pilot basis, thereby other farmers can learn how to do or ganic farming. 2: Giving subsidy to bio-degradable, vermi-compost units through Agricultural & Horticultural Department, Industry & Commerce. 3: Establishing organic farming research centers at agricultural universities.M: What are the fertilizers allowed in organic farming? S: 1: Farm Yard Manure 2: City Compost 3: Vermi-Compost 4: Enriched Compost 5: Green Manure M: What is the method of growing the plants in organic farming? S: 1: Sowing the seed with recommended dose of naturally occurring organic fertilizer G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 50 2: Irrigation of the sowed area 3: Seed gets germinated in 1-2 weeks 4: Process of Weeding 5: Harvesting, once the plant is ready 6: Ploughing the ? eld for the next crop M: What are the risks involved with Organic Farming? S: 1: In case of organic farms, there is low yield in the ? rst few years. 2: Pest and Disease management is dif? ult 3: Our soils are addicted to fertilizers and take time to revert back to organic standards 4: It is a v ery laborious process 5: Organic manure are to be produced by the farms, which is also a lengthy and expensive process 6: Seeds are not easily available 7: High prices may lead to low sales M: Is organic food more nutritious than conventional food? S: Yes, organic food has more nutritional value and also has better taste. Reason being that it is produced in its natural method. M: What does â€Å"certi? ed organic† mean? What is the certi? cation process? S: In western countries as well as in India, Organic produce is purchased on basis of the certi? cation by various agencies such as the ICCOA. After completion of the initial three years of production, the farmer must enroll for the certi? cation. The agency then monitors G r o u p V I!Organic Farming 51 the day-to-day cultivation activities and soil testing, the said agency will certify the farm as â€Å"organic†. M: Why does Organic cost more? S: It costs more, because the cost of cultivation is higher although the y ield obtained is low. The demand is higher when compared to the supply. Also, it is pesticide and fertilizer free and has a higher nutritional value, steering it towards being a healthier alternative. M: Is there a national standard for Organic Farming? S: No M: How do farmers fertilize crops and control pests, diseases and weeds? S: Organic farmers fertilize crops by using farmyard manure, vermi-compost, green manure etc. : They manage pests by manual collection of pests 2: Botanical extracts 3: Neem Oil 4: Neem Cake 5: By following integrated pest management methods Diseases are managed by: 1: Manual Roughing 2: By using Botanical extracts G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 52 3: Some plants have naturally occurring fungicidal properties Weeds are managed by: 1: Summer Ploughing 2: Intercultivation 3: Hand Weeding M: What subsidies does the government provide for organic farmers? S: 1: Vermi-compost per farmer – Rs. 6000 – Rs. 30000 (depending on the size of the farm) 2: Biogas Unit – Rs. 60000 Subsidy 3: City Compost: Distributed at 50% subsidy 4: Green Compost: Sold at 50% subsidy 5: Biodigester: Subsidy of Rs. 0000 (Biodigesters convert organic wastes into a nutrient rich liquid fertilizer and biogas, a renewable source of electrical and heat energy) Irrigation Subsidy Operations & Maintenance subsidy + 6 per cent interest on cumulative Irrigation investments Operations & Maintenance subsidy + 1 per cent interest on cumulative irrigation investments Power Subsidy G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 53 Difference between average cost of production per unit and the average revenue realized per unit multiplied by agricultural power consumption as estimated by APTRANSCO Difference between the cost to serve agriculture and average revenue realisation per unit multiplied by agricultural power consumption as estimated by APTRANSCODifference between the cost to serve agriculture and average revenue realised per unit multiplied by power consumption as estimated by AP Farmers Federation G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 54 ACKNOWLEDGMENT We would like to thank our Entrepreneurship Development faculty, Mrs. Radhika, for giving us the opportunity to create a project report such as this, which was a widely informative and knowledge building exercise. We also worked in tandem with Mr. Samad Patel, Assistant Director of The Department of Agriculture, Gulbarga, Karnataka, throughout our research. He guided us through our dif? culties and gave us essential information that we needed to complete our analysis. G r o u p V I! Organic Farming 55

What is Bells Palsy †Health Essay

What is Bells Palsy – Health Essay Free Online Research Papers Bell’s Palsy is a temporary condition that affects the nerves and muscles in the face. It is a unexpected loss of control of movement in the facial muscles. The facial muscles become weaken or paralyzed causing one side of the face to droop or sag. Sir Charles Bell, for which Bell’s Palsy was named after, discovered the condition in the 19th century. He was a Scottish surgeon who studied nerves and the common cause of facial paralysis. Bell’s Palsy can happen to anyone, but most likely in pregnant women, people with diabetes, and people who have a virus. It affects almost 1 of every 5,000 people and 40,000 Americans per year. There is a facial nerve that directs the muscle on each side of the face called the 7th cranial nerve. When the function of the nerve is disrupted, the messages that the brain sends to the facial muscles are not received. This is what causes the face to weaken and be paralyzed. The causes of Bell’s Palsy is not yet known, but what we do know is that it happens when the nerve that travels from the brain swells because of an infected virus, like herpes simplex, and the blood supply gets cut off. This causes the cells to die and the nerve can no longer carry any messages to the muscle. There are two systems that Bell’s Palsy effects the nervous system and the muscular system. With the 7th cranial nerve cells dying, the normal function of the nerve can not take place, which is to send nerve impulses from the brain to the muscles and glands. This effects the muscular system because now the muscles can not receive the impulses from the brain, therefore the muscle can not contract. This is what causes the face on the affected side to sag and droop. A person can also experience difficulties closing and blinking the eye. The tear and saliva glands become inactive and the eye will water uncontrollably and drooling of the mouth will take place. This also makes speaking a challenge since the affected side of the mouth is attracted to the unaffected side. Before the start of Bell’s Palsy the nervous system interacted with the muscle system flawlessly. The nerve impulses would communicate with the muscle and the glands giving them directions on what to do. The muscles would be able to contract and give the face expression again, instead of having part of the face sag, it would be symmetrical. In diagnosing Bell’s Palsy, there is no clinical tests done. If a person who gets paralyzed in one side of the face, within hours for no apparent reason, would then need to go see their doctor. The doctor would then be able to see the abnormal appearance of the face and the failure to move the face muscles. After the doctor rules out any other possible facial paralysis the next step is to diagnose the patient with Bell’s Palsy. There is a way to tell the extend of the nerve damage by a test called electromyography, but usually the doctor will be able to tell by just the physical appearance of the face. There isn’t a cure for Bell’s Palsy, just treatment that helps the nerve damage. Most of the time doctors give their patients steroids, which help fight any infections and reduce inflammation. Acyclovir an anti-infection combined with Prednisone, an anti-inflammatory, helps reduce nerve damage and help develop facial functions again. Since one affect to Bells Palsy is that blinking is interrupted and the eye can not blink naturally. So it is important to keep the affected eye moist with eye drops or an eye patch. It is found that the prognosis of Bell’s Palsy is very good. The recovery depends on the extent of the nerve damage. Most people see improvements within two weeks from the start of the symptoms and a complete recovery within three to six months. It may happen in rare cases that the symptoms never go away. I think that stress has something to do with the swelling of the nerves. Usually when you get sick it is because you’re immune system is down and I usually find that the immune system is down because of a lot of extra stress. Experts say you are more at risk to develop Bell’s Palsy when you have a virus and you get a virus when your immune system is down and stress causes your immune system to go down. So my only thought on how to prevent this condition is to cut out the stress in your life (if only it was that easy). Bibliography â€Å"Bell’s Palsy Fact Sheet† ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/pubs/bells_palsy.htm Coker NJ and Fisch U: Disorders of the Facial Nerve. Otolaryngology, English GM (ed)Harper and Row, Hagarstown, 1984. Coker NJ: Management of Traumatic Injuries to the Facial Nerve. Otolaryngol Clinics North Am, Weisman RA and Stanley Jr. RB (eds), 24:215-227. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, 1991 Karnes WE. Diseases of the seventh cranial nerve. In: Dyck PJ, Thomas PK. Lambert EH, Bunge R, eds. Peripheral neuropathy. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: W.B. SaunderSaunders,1984;2:1266 -99. May M., et al. Natural History of Bells Palsy: The Salivary Flow Test and Other Prognostic Indicators. Laryngoscope 86: 704 712, 1976. Peitersen E. The Natural History of Bells Palsy. Am J. Otol 4: 107, 1982. Research Papers on What is Bell's Palsy - Health EssayPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyThe Hockey GameAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementGenetic EngineeringCapital PunishmentThe Masque of the Red Death Room meaningsEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfPETSTEL analysis of IndiaLifes What Ifs

Star Wars in Spanish

Star Wars in Spanish If you want to talk with your Spanish-speaking friends about Star Wars, the Fundacà ³n del Espaà ±ol Urgente has some advice for you. Known in English as the Foundation for Urgent Spanish, the Royal Spanish Academy-affiliated organization also called Fundà ©u BBVA has issued guidelines to aid Spanish speakers and publications in discussing the space saga. Among them are that the film series should not be referred to by its English name - as is common - but by the Spanish name for the first film in the series: La guerra de las galaxias (literally The War of the Galaxies). As is the case with other compositition titles, only the first word should be capitalized. As with that piece of advice, Fundà ©us other recommendations show some similarities and differences with English: Precuela is an acceptable word to refer to a prequel, just as secuela is acceptable for a sequel.Although in English we can talk about Episode 5, in Spanish its episodio V.Theres no need to capitalize the names of groups of creatures, just as names of ethnic groups arent capitalized. Thus the Ewoks are known as los ewoks. (In words of recent foreign origin, it is common to pluralize by appending -s rather than -es as is usually done with words ending in a consonant.)Jedis are known as jedis, but the Jedi Order can be written with capitalization as la Orden Jedi.Names of spaceships are capitalized much as they are in English. Thus the Millennial Falcon is el Halcà ³n Milenario.A laser is un lser.A hard-core fan can be called un or una friki, whose spelling is preferred to friqui.A series of nine films can be called either una nonalogà ­a or una enealogà ­a. Im not sure what the English equivalent is, but this is similar to the way a series of three films is called a trilogà ­a in Spanish (trilogy in English). The entire saga can be referred to as, well, una saga even though the traditional meaning of saga refers to legends less grand.The use of franquicia (franchise) should be avoided in referring to the movies series itself - its better to use serie. Franquicia should be used to refer to merchandise and spinoffs (such as comic books) based on the movie series.Luke Skywalker? Hes  Lucas Caminante de los Cielos, a calque. And Han Solo is simply Han Solo.  Native speakers have often written the name as Han Sà ³lo, but Fundà ©u says the accent isnt needed.

Logistics Behind US Federal Regulations

Logistics Behind US Federal Regulations Federal regulations are specific details directives or requirements with the force of law enacted by the federal agencies necessary to enforce the legislative acts passed by Congress. The Clean Air Act, the Food and Drug Act, the Civil Rights Act are all examples of landmark legislation requiring months, even years of highly publicized planning, debate, compromise and reconciliation in Congress. Yet the work of creating the vast and ever-growing volumes of federal regulations, the real laws behind the acts, happens largely unnoticed in the offices of the government agencies rather than the halls of Congress. Regulatory Federal Agencies Agencies, like the FDA, EPA, OSHA and at least 50 others, are called regulatory agencies  because they are empowered to create and enforce rules regulations that carry the full force of law. Individuals, businesses, and private and public organizations can be fined, sanctioned, forced to close, and even jailed for violating federal regulations. The oldest Federal regulatory agency still in existence is the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, established in 1863 to charter and regulate national banks. The  Federal Rulemaking Process The process of creating and enacting federal regulations is generally referred to as the rulemaking process. First, Congress passes a law designed to address a social or economic need or problem. The appropriate regulatory agency then creates regulations necessary to implement the law. For example, the Food and Drug Administration creates its regulations under the authority of the Food Drug and Cosmetics Act, the Controlled Substances Act and several other acts created by Congress over the years. Acts such as these are known as enabling legislation, because the literally enable the regulatory agencies to create the regulations required to administer enforce them. The Rules of Rulemaking Regulatory agencies create regulations according to rules and processes defined by another law known as the Administration Procedure Act (APA). The APA defines a rule or regulation as... [T]he whole or a part of an agency statement of general or particular applicability and future effect designed to implement, interpret, or prescribe law or policy or describing the organization, procedure, or practice requirements of an agency. The APA defines rulemaking as†¦ [A]gency action which regulates the future conduct of either groups of persons or a single person; it is essentially legislative in nature, not only because it operates in the future but because it is primarily concerned with policy considerations. Under the APA, the agencies must publish all proposed new regulations in the Federal Register at least 30 days before they take effect, and they must provide a way for interested parties to comment, offer amendments, or object to the regulation. Some regulations require only publication and an opportunity for comments to become effective. Others require publication and one or more formal public hearings. The enabling legislation states which process is to be used in creating the regulations. Regulations requiring hearings can take several months to become final. New regulations or amendments to existing regulations are known as proposed rules. Notices of public hearings or requests for comments on proposed rules are published in the Federal Register, on the Web sites of the regulatory agencies and in many newspapers and other publications. The notices will include information on how to submit comments, or participate in public hearings on the proposed rule. Once a regulation takes effect, it becomes a final rule and is printed in the Federal Register, the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) and usually posted on the Web site of the regulatory agency. Type and Number of Federal Regulations In the Office of Management and Budgets (OMB) 2000 Report to Congress on the Costs and Benefits of Federal Regulations, OMB defines the three widely recognized categories of federal regulations as: social, economic, and process. Social regulations: seek  to benefit the public interest in one of two ways. It prohibits firms from producing products in certain ways or with certain characteristics that are harmful to public interests such as health, safety, and the environment. Examples would be OSHA’s rule prohibiting firms from allowing in the workplace more than one part per million of Benzene averaged over an eight hour day and the Department of Energy’s rule prohibiting firms from selling refrigerators that do not meet certain energy efficiency standards. Social regulation also requires firms to produce products in certain ways or with certain characteristics that are beneficial to these public interests. Examples are the Food and Drug Administration’s requirement that firms selling food products must provide a label with specified information on its package and Department of Transportation’s requirement that automobiles be equipped with approved airbags. Economic regulations: prohibit  firms from charging prices or entering or exiting lines of business that might cause harm to the economic interests of other firms or economic groups. Such regulations usually apply on an industry-wide basis (for example, agriculture, trucking, or communications). In the United States, this type of regulation at the federal level has often been administered by independent commissions such as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) or the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). This type of regulation can cause economic loss from the higher prices and inefficient operations that often occur when the competition is restrained. Process Regulations: impose administrative or paperwork requirements such as income tax, immigration, social security, food stamps, or procurement forms. Most costs to businesses resulting from program administration, government procurement, and tax compliance efforts. Social and economic regulation may also impose paperwork costs due to disclosure requirements and enforcement needs. These costs generally appear in the cost for such rules. Procurement costs generally show up in the federal budget as greater fiscal expenditures. How Many Federal Regulations are There? According to the Office of the Federal Register, in 1998, the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), the official listing of all regulations in effect, contained a total of 134,723 pages in 201 volumes that claimed 19 feet of shelf space. In 1970, the CFR totaled only 54,834 pages. The General Accountability Office (GAO) reports that in the four fiscal years from 1996 to 1999, a total of 15,286 new federal regulations went into effect. Of these, 222 were classified as major rules, each one having an annual effect on the economy of at least $100 million. While they call the process rulemaking, the regulatory agencies create and enforce rules that are truly laws, many with the potential to profoundly affect the lives and livelihoods of millions of Americans. What controls and oversight are placed on the regulatory agencies in creating federal regulations? Control of the Regulatory Process Federal regulations created by the regulatory agencies are subject to review by both the president and Congress under Executive Order 12866 and the Congressional Review Act. The Congressional Review Act (CRA) represents an attempt by Congress to re-establish some control over the agency rulemaking process. Executive Order 12866, issued on Sept. 30, 1993, by President Clinton, stipulates steps that must be followed by executive branch agencies before regulations issued by them are allowed to take effect. For all regulations, a detailed cost-benefit analysis must be performed. Regulations with an estimated cost of $100 million or more are designated major rules, and require completion of a more detailed Regulatory Impact Analysis (RIA). The RIA must justify the cost of the new regulation and must be approved by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) before the regulation can take effect. Executive Order 12866 also requires all regulatory agencies to prepare and submit to OMB annual plans to establish regulatory priorities and improve coordination of the Administrations regulatory program. While some requirements of Executive Order 12866 apply only to executive branch agencies, all federal regulatory agencies fall under the controls of the Congressional Review Act. The Congressional Review Act (CRA) allows Congress 60 in-session days to review and possibly reject new federal regulations issued by the regulatory agencies. Under the CRA, the regulatory agencies are required to submit all new rules the leaders of both the House and Senate. In addition, the General Accounting Office (GAO) provides to those congressional committees related to the new regulation, a detailed report on each new major rule.

Victim Services Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Victim Services - Essay Example In this regard, expenses covered are, medical related expenses, and mental health counseling services. On the other hand, "Crime victim assistance programs provide a range of services, including crisis intervention, counseling, emergency shelter, criminal justice advocacy, and emergency." "A victim should have access where necessary to available welfare, health, counseling and legal assistance responsive to the victim's needs". (Victims of Crime >> The rights of a victim of crime, n.d.) Normally progress in treating of crime victims is due to the tremendous efforts of thousands of peoples who have turned their victimization into a force of positive change. Interestingly, victims of domestic violence, homicide, child abuse and rape have changed their experiences. Progress in improving the treatment of crime victims is due because of the attempts of thousands of individuals who have turned their victimization into a force for positive change. Victims and survivors of homicide, rape, child abuse, domestic violence, and other serious crimes have transformed their experiences into a vehicle for assuring that victims of similar nature of crimes get right justice, significant assistance, and compassionate treatment before the law. In this regard, many survivors and victims spend their resources and time to provide assistance programmes like carry out legislative advocacy, protection and crises hotlines etc. Fortunately, every community provides assistance to crime victims. Many organizations provide financial services to their crime victims through crime victims fund (CVF) which is managed by OVC. Funds collected in OVC provide services for victims such as, training for advocates and professionals all over the nation. "Millions of dollars are deposited into the Fund each year from criminal fines, forfeited bail bonds, penalties, and special assessments collected by U.S. Attorneys' Offices, U.S. Federal Courts, and the Federal Bureau of Prisons. All Fund dollars have typically come from offenders convicted of federal crimes, not from taxpayers. However, the October 2001 Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act (USA PATRIOT Act) expanded the possible sources in fiscal year 2002 by authorizing the deposit of gifts, bequests, or donations from private entities into the Fund". (Not Available, n.d.) Furthermore, the Attorney General's Crime Victim Services Division provides following services to victims. Crime Victims' Compensation Program The Crime Victims' Compensation Program reimburses due expenses to victims of violent crime and their home persons. The Crime Victims' Compensation Fund assists entitled victims pay for medical and advising charges spent due to the crime and assists families to cover the cost of the funeral for the loved ones who have been murdered or killed. Allowances and Contracts Management Program Allowances and Contracts Management Program administers following: "OVAG - Other Victim Assistance Grants VCLG - Victim Coordinator and Liaison Grants SAPCS - Sexual Assault Prevention and Crisis Services Program Texas VINE - Statewide Automated Victim Notification System CASA - Court Appointed Special Advocates CAC - Children's Advocacy Centers CVCLS -

Age of Nationalism, Realism (1850-1871), and Age of Progress Essay

Age of Nationalism, Realism (1850-1871), and Age of Progress (1871-1894) - Essay Example While Napoleon III sought to preserve the most famous medieval buildings which had been disregarded since the French revolution, he directed the flattening of Large sections of the city and the replacement of old winding streets with broad avenues and large thoroughfares. This rebuilding was very significant as it turned Paris into a city of broad tree-lined boulevards and parks that are major tourists’ attraction sites today. Another positive legacy of Napoleon in France was the development of infrastructure. Under him, the French railway network was built. This greatly contributed to the development of steel industry and coal mining in France and radically changed the nature of the economy into the second largest in the world. Coal mining and steel companies issued stocks, which saw the French stock market expand enormously. The country entered the modern age of large-scale capitalism. Tycoon such as Eugene Schneider and James de Rothschild are symbols of the period. Frances largest banks founded during that period exist even today. Napoleon III was the first French ruler to have taken great care of French economy. His restructuring of Paris made the city to be what it is today as it determined a new type of urban setting and has had a great positive productive impact on the daily lives of Parisians. In fact, all posterior trends and powers referred to these renovations to either adapt or reject them or to recuperate certain of France’s elements. However, politically, Napoleon left a negative legacy, as his martial escapades were sometimes a fatal blow to Europe’s performance. Even when it involved radical and potentially revolutionary changes in politics, Napoleon III attempted to rearrange the world map to the favor of France. He was overambitious and he had gone too far and committed severe mistakes. He entered in wars that were not necessary for instance, the war with Russia and with Prussia that led

U.S. and Texas government Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

U.S. and Texas government - Essay Example While those that are republicans include among others; Montana, North Dakota, Wyoming, Texas, South Dakota, Utah, Arkansas, Indiana, Kentucky, North Carolina among others. c) Battle states are the states where both the democratic and the republicans have the same chances of winning in a given voting period. They are very important in the manner that they determine who will rule the nation after the elections. 2. Why does the SMSP election system lead to a two-party system? SMSP is the process of voting whereby the person who gets most votes wins. It leads to a two-party system because voters end up choosing among the two of the leaders to lead to them. All regions too elect one individual to represent them during the elections. a. What are the advantages of such a two-party dominant system? It enables the leaders to have a strong candidate so that their political agendas are represented. Voters are also not confused during voting to elect their leaders using their agendas. b. What are the drawbacks of a two-party dominant system? A two –party dominant system do not allow full participation of the rest of the members in other parties. They are also supported more by the government which leads to inequality. c. If you had the power to alter the American political system to a proportional representation and multi-party model, would you favor that change? Why or why not? It’s a voting method that uses quota system to ensure that each part wins with a given number of votes. It can’t represent all the voters.

Development of Nationalism in East and Southeast Asia Essay

Development of Nationalism in East and Southeast Asia - Essay Example Nationalism is considered to be a process, which develops with respect to time; it does not emerge abruptly or unexpectedly. â€Å"It is not a phenomenon that appears suddenly. It is the result of a process by which a people become conscious of themselves as a separate national entity in the modern world, a process by which they become willing to transfer their primary loyalty from the village, or the region, or the monarch, to the nation-state† 1. It is this perspective, which can be found in East and Southeast Asia. In order to integrate nationalism, several steps and measures have been adopted by the government. These measures include the suppression of opposition, the selection of a mutual language and the concentrate on economic growth in order to sustain and maintain liberty. Nationalism and Communism in Southeast Asia is the product of colonisation. The vast majority of the East and Southeast Asian countries were â€Å"controlled either by the British, French, Dutch, A mericans or Portuguese, who sought to control unnatural boundaries and had no regard for the natives of those areas† 2. After the end of World War II, majority of the East and Southeast Asian countries declared independence from the Western imperialist. For instance, Indonesian nationalists fought with the Dutch in order to get their independence. Philippine got it independence from United States; Vietnam got its independence from France after the Indochina war. After the end of World War II, majority of the East and Southeast Asian.

Portrayal of Women's Health Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Portrayal of Women's Health - Research Paper Example The portrayal of women health issues by the media plays a role in shaping opinion and influencing medical practice around such issues. Women health issues include pregnancy, abortion, female sexual organs and even hormonal issues. Scientific publications that report on women health issues, advertisements that deal around women health issues, films, television programs among other media forms have portrayed women health issues in different ways depending on what they seek to achieve. The media coverage of women health issues has been subjective and biased, objectifying women and reporting their issues in relation to their reproductive role in the society. Â  This essay seeks to discuss the media portrayal of women health issues focusing on the historical and modern views. With the understanding of the huge role that the media plays in shaping opinions in the society and subsequently influencing the medical practice, the essay seeks to discuss the issues around how women health issues are portrayed by the media. This includes issues around women’s pregnancy, female sexual organs, abortion and related issues. The issues about the women’s health are prevalent in the media ranging from television, print media, commercials, films among other media forms. Therefore, how the health issues of women are presented is important as they influence decision making about women’s health. In interrogating the fundamental issues around the portrayal of women health issues by the media, the essay seeks to put into perspective the biases, subjectivity, and sexualization of women health issues by the media that immensely affect decis ion making on the health of a woman (Lee, 1992). The findings shall be provided as well as a brief summary conclusion. Â  

Annotated Bibliography on The Obama administration's policy lifting

On The Obama administration's policy lifting the prohibition of women from serving in combat roles - Annotated Bibliography Example It further displays their immense roles calling for a redefinition of women roles in ground combats. Davis, Robert et al. "This research was sponsored by the National Institute of Justice and was conducted in the RAND Center on Quality Policing within the Safety and Justice Program of RAND Infrastructure, Safety, and Environment." (2011). this is a research paper that was conducted by the national institute of justice at the RAND center to access the quality of decisions that are often made by the executive organs in various organizations. In view of the ban the paper reviews its suitability an applicability bearing in mind the delicate nature of women serving in ground combats. The paper shows concern on safety upon implementation of such policies. In addition, the paper undertakes a review to ascertain implementation policies that have so far been passed such as the 1990’s ban on women flying in combat and serving in war ships. Miller, Laura et al. The Extent of Restrictions on the Service of Active-Component Military Women; Rand National Defense Research Institute: Santa Monica, 2012. This is a review by the Rand Defense Research Institute. The paper investigates the harm that a restriction on women serving in combat positions affects the entire military operations. The paper argues that although restriction of women can yield better results, it can as well yield poor results since some women are more talented in ground combat more than their male counterparts. It further stresses that when women are accepted to work in a free environment they are more likely to have their military experience boosted. Skein, Rosemarie. Women in Combat: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2011. This is a handbook that outlines proposals and measures that should be put in place to ensure fair participation of women service in combat positions in the military. In this regard, the paper bases its arguments on the ban

Portrayal of Women's Health Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Portrayal of Women's Health - Research Paper Example The portrayal of women health issues by the media plays a role in shaping opinion and influencing medical practice around such issues. Women health issues include pregnancy, abortion, female sexual organs and even hormonal issues. Scientific publications that report on women health issues, advertisements that deal around women health issues, films, television programs among other media forms have portrayed women health issues in different ways depending on what they seek to achieve. The media coverage of women health issues has been subjective and biased, objectifying women and reporting their issues in relation to their reproductive role in the society. Â  This essay seeks to discuss the media portrayal of women health issues focusing on the historical and modern views. With the understanding of the huge role that the media plays in shaping opinions in the society and subsequently influencing the medical practice, the essay seeks to discuss the issues around how women health issues are portrayed by the media. This includes issues around women’s pregnancy, female sexual organs, abortion and related issues. The issues about the women’s health are prevalent in the media ranging from television, print media, commercials, films among other media forms. Therefore, how the health issues of women are presented is important as they influence decision making about women’s health. In interrogating the fundamental issues around the portrayal of women health issues by the media, the essay seeks to put into perspective the biases, subjectivity, and sexualization of women health issues by the media that immensely affect decis ion making on the health of a woman (Lee, 1992). The findings shall be provided as well as a brief summary conclusion. Â  

Work Stress Essay Example for Free

Work Stress Essay We live with it, deal with it, and above all worry about it. Our way of life, the area in which we live, the economy, and our jobs can cause a great deal of stress. Not everyone deals with the same level of stress and there are several factors that can impact our lives and cause us to have higher or lower stress levels. We can have stressed caused by Cataclysmic events which according to Feldman (2009) are events that can affect many people at the same time and are â€Å"disasters such as tornado and plane crashes, as well as terrorist attacks†. (p418). Other factors are personal stressors and can be caused by events such as a divorce, death or a loved one or the loss of a job. (Feldman, 2009). The other category is what Feldman (2009) refers to as background stressors and are the things that impact our daily life. South Florida has many factors that contribute to our stress level, high unemployment rate 12.1% , high number of families living in poverty approximately 16%, (U.S. Census Bureau, American Fact Finder at (http://factfinder.census.gov), a housing crisis that has contributed to many residents losing their homes, overcrowded roads, high crime rate, and during hurricane season the weather. When we compare ourselves with people living in smaller cities, villages, other areas of the country or even other countries, or those whose socio economic status allows them to maintain their life style during difficult economic times we could probably see a difference in the stress level. Who has not stressed over driving in the Palmetto or I-95. Who has not stressed over the evening news or the possibility of not having a job in very difficult economic times? Who has not stressed over the possibility of being affected by the housing crisis? Who does not stress over a situation at work over which we have no control? These are stressors we live with and deal with on a daily basis. Work Stress and Mental Health Some people have higher levels of stress because they might have a very stressful job. Police officers, fire fighters, soldiers in a war zone, health care providers, long distance truck drivers, and yes, even educators (think of a classroom full of students where you are responsible for making sure that they are learning the skills they need to succeed) have very stressful jobs. According to Elkin and Rosch (1990) workplace related stress in a major problem in the U.S. and it creates a major expense for corporations. Koeske, Kirk, and Koeske (1993) indicate that all jobs have some level of stress but jobs that are in the human services have additional stressors because they â€Å"derive from intense involvement in the lives of others†. (p.319). They also refer to the type of stress experienced by individuals working in human services as â€Å"burnout† (Koeske, Kirk, and Koeske, 1993, p.319). Another factor that can influence our stress level is how we handle lifeâ€℠¢s demands. There are different ways of reacting to the situations we face every day of our lives. We have all heard of expressions such as ‘road rage’ and ‘going postal’. These are terms that we have come to identified with violent reactions to stressors caused by situations all of us face every day. How many of us have experiences in the road that would cause us to display behavior that is outside of what we consider to be within a normal range? How many of us have had experiences at work with a supervisor or a coworker where we have had to use all of our self control not to respond in an appropriate manner? We all have had these experiences and how we handle them depends on different factors such as our own characteristics, or external factors that could be impacting us at any particular moment. Symptoms of stress and anxiety caused by work According to Tetrick and LaRocco (1987) â€Å" work conditions can lead to perception of stress. Perceived stress, in turn, leads to job-related strains such as dissatisfaction, boredom, and turnover, and to individual strains such as anxiety, depression, and physical illness† (p.538). There are other factors that can cause high level of stress in a job for example high demands on the part of an employer, (i.e. constant deadlines, extended work hours) and low control on the part of the employee (i.e. very little control over the day to day activities in the workplace) and low rewards for effort can increase the chances of having serious health problems such as anxiety, use of prescription or over the counter drugs to deal with stress. (Workplace Mental Health Promotion, 2010). According to Tetrick and Larocco (1987) in addition to these external factors related to our jobs and the type of work conditions we have we also have internal factors that they call â€Å"internal char acteristics (i.e., personal characteristics) and external conditions (i.e., situational characteristics)† (p. 358). Pachner (2010) stated that In response to feelings of insecurity or ineffectiveness many people can avoid social interactions with colleagues and can develop physical symptoms such as headaches, insomnia, high blood pressure and even heart attacks. Many of us have experiences these types of feelings or reactions when we have found ourselves in stressful jobs. These health related issues can impact the individual, his/her family, the workplace environment and the community in general. Higher costs for health care, incidents of road rage or workplace violence, as well as in some instances domestic violence can all be linked to stressed caused by work. Individuals at risk of experiencing conditions of stress and anxiety As indicated before most of us are at risk of experiencing stress and a burnout feeling at any time. Those of us who are in the fields where we deal with people or a daily basis or where high demands and where we have little control of our work environment will be more impacted than others. Additionally as mentioned before certain type of personality characteristics will increase or levels of stress. Some of the internal characteristics might be our way of handling difficult situations, our need to control our environment, our need to overachieve, even our need to please others. Some individuals have a need to have control over all aspects of their lives and when decisions are made by others and they have no control over these decisions it impacts their well being. Stressful jobs such as those involving high risk or oneself, i.e. law enforcement, military duty in a war zone, can cause higher level of stress. Jobs where demands are placed in our abilities to deal with others can also create stress, i.e., healthcare professionals, customer service personnel, teachers, and other professionals who deal directly with others. The stress caused by these types of jobs can influence our health, our attitudes, and even our home life. In many instances individuals do not have the opportunity to decompress before arriving home to deal with the other stressors that we all confront. When we leave our jobs we then need to face the different challenges surrounding us in our community i.e. traffic, weather, etc. Dealing with stress and anxiety According to Elkin and Rosch (1990) To prevent burnout individuals need to monitor their mental and physical health and maintain a healthy lifestyle that includes a healthy diet, leisure time and connecting with family and friends. All of us need to understand the importance of maintaining a healthy equilibrium between work and our own personal life. Giving in to the demands of a stressful job can only serve to create additional health problems such as heart conditions, high blood pressure, dependency on over the counter, illegal, or prescription drugs. It will also contribute to other problems such as lack of sleep, isolation, and sometimes depression. Perhaps we need to look at how other societies live their daily lives. For example traveling in the Mediterranean, specially the Greek islands, can give you a different perspective of how life can be. The Greek Islands have a low rate of heart disease and having traveled there myself I can see how their lifestyle contributes to that l ow risk. They are very active and involved in activities that promote healthy lifestyles i.e. fishing. They eat healthy and most of the time is food that is prepared in a healthy way. They take time to rest during the day and they take the time to enjoy family and friends and establish social connections. We, on the other hand, because of our work schedules, the time it takes us to get to and from work, the demands we place on ourselves, rarely have time to socialize and spend time with family or friends. Perhaps corporations should take into consideration the need to provide time for employees to establish relationships at work that are not just work related but that go beyond the routine of the workplace. Encouraging employees to have an active life style would also help the stress since physical activity reduces stress level. Having a good health insurance that promotes healthy life style such as by encouraging preventing medicine and membership in health clubs will contribute to reduce the stress level. We also need to take proactive steps to reduce the stress level caused by our jobs. One of the steps we can take is to accept that our personality can play a major role on how we adapt and deal with the job demands and take steps to change the extra stress we create for ourselves. If we like to control what we do at all times and like to plan ahead for all events but work in a job that is constantly changing we can begin by accepting that we can control the time we leave for work, what we take for lunch, and what route we take to get to and from work and that will give us a sense of control for at least part of the day. If we like to achieve perfection or please those around us we can begin by establishing realistic goals that we can achieve every day rather than trying to be the best in all possible aspects. Understanding ourselves, our needs, our personality, and the demands of our jobs can help us to decrease the level of stress we experience. There are factors over which we have no control i.e. the crime rate in our area, the weather, the overcrowded highways, etc. However we can certainly control other aspects of our lives such as how we handle the demands of our job, the type of lifestyle we choose to live and the amount of quality time we choose to spend with family and friends who are important to us. Knowledge and Career Understanding that there is an entire group of problems that are known as â€Å"psychophysilogical disorders that often result or are worsened by stress† (Feldman, 2009, p.421) can help us to realize that these are very real medical problems that are â€Å"influenced by an interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties† Feldman, 2009, p.421). Having gained some basic knowledge of the different aspects of what can cause stress in our lives such as work, environment, social demands, etc. can help us manage our lives and careers in a way that will help us to achieve our goals, maintain healthy relationships, succeed at our jobs, and maintain a healthy life style. According to Feldman (2009) our relationship with others can help us deal with our stress. The social support we can establish can help us to lower our stress level and the support we show others can help them as well. Coping with the daily stressors we face, and doing so as a member of a group of family, friends, coworkers, or neighbors can help us to maintain a healthy level of stress and will certainly reduce the risk of health problems associated with major stress in our life. This will in turn help us to be successful in our careers because we will achieve a healthy balance of work goals, family goals, community commitment, and a sense of well being.

NMR Spectrometer: Applications, Components and Functions

NMR Spectrometer: Applications, Components and Functions Describe briefly the major components of a NMR spectrometer and their function. The Magnet The capability of an NMR instrument is critically dependent upon the magnitude and homogeneity of the static magnetic field and on the bore size of the magnet. There are three main types of magnet; permanent, resistive, and superconducting. (Gadian, 2004) The Gradient System The generation of magnetic resonance images relies on the appropriate use of pulsed magnetic field gradients. These gradients are generated in the same way as those produced by the shim coils, i.e. by specially constructed coils mounted within the bore of the magnet, designed to produce field gradients of the required strength and linearity. (Gadian, 2004) The Transmitter The transmitter generates radiofrequency pulses of the appropriate frequency, power, shape, and timing. It contains a frequency generator, a waveform generator shape the pulses as required, a gate which switches the transmission on and off at the required times, and a power amplifier which boosts the radiofrequency power to the values that are required in Fourier-transform NMR. (Gadian, 2004) The Radiofrequency coil(s) The Radiofrequency coils are used for transmitting the B1 field into the region of interest, and for detecting the resulting signal. In some cases, the same coil is used for transmission and reception, while in others it may be preferable to use separate transmit and receive coils. (Gadian, 2004) The Receiver The design of a modern digital receiver centres around an analog to digital converter (ADC), which samples the analog NMR signal and converts it into digital format. Important characteristics of the ADC are its conversion bandwidth and resolution. The Computer The computer has a wide range of function. Its main functions are: (i) to control the radiofrequency and field gradient pulses; (ii) to accumulate the data; and (iii) to process and display the data. (Gadian, 2004) The magnet produces the Bo field necessary for the NMR experiments. When nuclei interact with a uniform external magnetic field, they behave like tiny compass needles and align themselves in a direction either parallel or anti parallel to the field. The two orientations have different energies, with the parallel direction having a lower energy than the anti parallel. Immediately within the bore of the magnet are the shim coils for homogenizing the Bo field. Within the shim coils is the probe. The probe contains the Radiofrequency (RF) coils for producing the B1 magnetic field necessary to rotate the spins by 90o or 180o. This will be done by the RF transmitter shown in figure 1. The RF coil also detects the signal from the spins within the sample. These signals will be detected by the RF receiver in figure1. The sample is positioned within the RF coil of the probe. Some probes also contain a set of gradient coils. These coils produce a gradient in Bo along the X, Y, or Z axis. The heart of the spectrometer is the computer. It controls all of the components of the spectrometer. The RF components under control of the computer are the RF frequency source and pulse programmer. The source produces a sine wave of the desired frequency. The pulse programmer sets the width, and in some cases the shape, of the RF pulses. The RF amplifier increases the pulses power from milli Watts to tens or hundreds of Watts. The computer also controls the gradient pulse programmer which sets the shape and amplitude of gradient fields. The gradient amplifier increases the power of the gradient pulses to a level sufficient to drive the gradient coils. The operator of the spectrometer gives input to the computer through a console terminal with a mouse and keyboard. Some spectrometers also have a separate small interface for carrying out some of the more routine procedures on the spectrometer. A pulse sequence is selected and customized from the console terminal. The operator can see spectra on a video display located on the console and can make hard copies of spectra using a printer. Comment on the nature, volume, condition, etc. required of a sample for nmr studies on biofluids. An important aspect of conducting NMR spectroscopy on biological fluids and tissues is suppression of large interfering resonances, in particular from water, buffers and cosolvents (in the case of extracts). It is also important to be able to apply accurately shaped (non-rectangular) r.f pulses and/or magnetic field gradients across samples to enable diffusion measurements, multidimensional NMR experiments, and the latest solvent suppression approaches. (Gadian, 2004) In any kind of NMR probe, there are two sample volumes to consider. First is the total volume of sample required (the sample volume) and second is the active volume or the volume of sample that is exposed to the r.f coils. For probes with the commonly used saddle coil, the ratio of active/sample volume is ~0.5. Typical sample volumes for metabonomics applications range from 120 to 500  µl, a range that is normally adequate for commonly available biofluids such as urine or plasma from anything larger than a mouse. There are also numerous examples of small volume probes (1-30 µl) that could have potential uses in certain applications on rare or hard to-obtain biofluids such as CSF or synovial fluids from small laboratory animals. (Gadian, 2004) No pre-treatment of the sample is required. The metaobiltes which are present in sufficiently mobile form and at sufficient concentration to give detectable signals. For in vivo studies a minimum concentration of 0.2mM is normally required. The amount of sample to be analysed itself is limited by instrument/magnet design but for simple solution studies a typical maximum volume is 0.5 -1 ml. For the less sensitive elements therefore it is desirable to have more concentrated solutions Hydrogen NMR spectra can be obtained in less than one minute depending on concentration of analytes in sample. 8 combined scans (each of 1-2 seconds duration) is usually enough to give a clear signal. Other nuclei are less sensitive and require more combined scans eg 13C can require a few hours of repeated scanning before signals are clear. Comment on technical aspects such solvent interferences, exchangeable Hydrogens,experiment duration, etc that are specific/relevant to NMR of biofluids. The presence of a water (HDO) peak will only serve to degrade the quality of NMR spectra. The concentration of water in an aqueous solution is about 55M and therefore the signal from water itself usually dwarfs/masks weaker signals. in a normal spectrum but a technique of water-suppression is commonly used to reduce the dominance of this peak and protons in the sample that exchange with water. In order to remove any interferences from solvent signals during NMR analysis, solvent suppression techniques are employed, the main ones being presaturation and WET (Water suppression Enhanced through T1 effects). The former is a long-standing method that uses shaped pulses to saturate the solvent resonance(s). The WET method uses selective pulses to excite the solvent resonances then dephasing gradient pulses to destroy them. The two techniques take 0.5-2 s and 50-100 ms, respectively, so the WET method is preferred for continuous-flow NMR. The time to acquire a spectrum depends most critically the number of accumulated scans and hence on the sensitivity of the nucleus under investigation and correspondingly the concentration of the sample. In general, as molecules become increasingly immobilized they produce broader signals. Therefore spectra of living systems revel narrow signals from metabolites which have a high degree of molecular mobility, whereas macromolecules, which are highly immobilized (such as DNA and membrane phospholipids), produce very much broader signals.1 H NMR spectroscopy imposes particularly stringent requirements. High field spectrometers that are used for studies of solutions may have field homogeneity as 1 part in 109, although of course this is over a much smaller sample volume (e.g. 0.5ml) than the volumes characteristic of in vivo studies. Much better spectral resolution can be achieved using high field system study relatively small volumes of body fluids or of cell or tissue extracts. A great deal of information can be derived from such studies. (Gadian, 2004) The poor sensitivity of NMR imposes limitations on the concentrations of compounds that can be detected, and upon the spatial resolution that can be achieved. Because of the large number of variables, it is difficult to give anything other than an order-of-magnitude estimate for the concentrations that are required and for the spatial resolution that can be achieved. Typically, however, we can anticipate that, for metabolic studies in vivo, minimum concentrations of 0.2mM and above will be required in order for a metabolite to give a detectable signal. One of the most remarkable features of magnetic resonance is the extensive range of pulse sequences that have been developed, with a view to enhancing the quality and information content of spectra. For example, innovative pulse sequences have contributed in many ways to improvements in image contrast, spectral localization, suppression of unwanted signals, and visualization of specific structural, biochemical, or functional properties. The existence of the chemical shift enables us to use NMR to distinguish not only between different molecules, but also between individual atoms within a molecule. When used in conjunction with intensity measurements and spin-spin coupling data, chemical shifts of the spectral lines of a molecules provide a great deal of information about its structure. (Gadian, 2004) Identify the major observable components in the control samples of human urine (see 1H spectrum obtained for a healthy adult at the session and compare with that of the 7 month old child in the Canavans disease case study in the lecture notes) Creatinine (Crn) is already identified for you. Canavans disease is an autosomal recessive disorder in which spongy degeneration of white matter is observed. Several groups have shown a large increase in the NAA/Cr and NAA/Cho ratios in children with Canavans disease, consistent with enzyme deficiency. The metabolites monitored were those that are present in sufficiently mobile form and at sufficient concentration to give detectable signals. The urine of patients with Canvans disease shows an unusual signal that can be attributed to NAA. Quantification of this signal from timed urine samples allows an assessment of the rate at which NAA is being removed from the brain. Sketch the molecular structures of each of the major components in urine and of Vitamin C. For each molecule indicate which hydrogen atoms are likely to give rise to distinct signals in a water suppressed 1H NMR spectrum (repeat for Vit C and compare with its reference spectrum provided) Indicates which hydrogen atoms are likely to give rise to distinct signals in a water suppressed 1H NMR spectrum Components in urine There are four different types of H but only two signals as two are bound to N Creatinine (Crn) Betaine (Bet) Hippuric acid (Hip) Acetate (Ace) Lactic acid (Lac) Alanine (Ala) Citrate (Cit) Oxalic acid (Ox) Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) (not normally present in urine!) There are six different types of H but only two signals as four are bound to O Identify the major spectral changes observed in the spectrum of urine obtained after ingestion of 10g/day Vitamin C over three days. What information do these spectra provide on the extent of Vitamin C metabolism and on the identities of the major excreted metabolites this is important do not gloss over it. The crn peak stays consistent throughout the 3 day period, as do the other excreted metabolites (Hip, Bet, Cit, Ace). This suggests Vitamin C has no effect on the excretion of other metabolites. The standard and healthy dosage of Vit c is 75 milligrams per day. Therefore at this dosage there is excess Vit c which is unmetabolised and excreted in the urine as shown in fig 4. The diagrams in figure 4 show more Vit c being excreted with each day that passes. Using the standard it is clear to see there is an increase in the peak at the position associated with vitamin C. The area around the peak also generates several smaller peaks. These are not vitamin C but are products with similar structures. These will probably be intermediates in the pathway which breaks down ascorbate acid and contain the same CH2-CH molecular unit intact that was present in the parent ascorbate structure, and this is the bit that gives the NMR fingerprint. Ascertain (Web of Knowledge or similar search would be appropraite) the generally agreed metabolites (excreted or otherwise) of Vitamin C (there are more than two and this is probably the most important aspect of the report so it needs some investigation!) Discuss whether these could and/or would be identified in the 1H nmr spectrum of urine after a prolonged high dosage of vitamin C. What common feature persists throught the degradative pathway- does this match your results? The generally agreed metabolites of Vit C are dehydroascorbate (DHAA), 2-O-methyl ascorbate, 2-ketoascorbitol as well as those in figure 5 (L-Threonic acid, Oxalic acid, Lactic acid). ASCORBATE BREAKDOWN Dehydroascorbate, if not reduced back to ascorbate, decomposes with a half-life of a few minutes, since this  compound is unstable at physiologic pH. The product of the hydrolysis is 2,3-diketo-L-gulonate, which does not possess antiscorbutic effects any more. 2,3-diketo-L-gulonate is decarboxylated to L-xylonate and L-lyxonate. These 5-carbon compounds can enter the pentose phosphate pathway and the L- to D-conversion is suggested to occur through xylitol. Another minor pathway of ascorbate catabolism is a carbon chain cleavage yielding oxalate and 4-carbon intermediates. Pentose phosphate pathway enters the glycolytic/gluconeogenic sequence at triose phosphates and fructose-6-phosphate. Ascorbate and dehydroascorbate, according to the previous assumptions, can be rapidly metabolized to glucose in isolated murine hepatocytes and in HepG2 cells. When glutathione-dependent recycling is inhibited by the oxidant menadione or by the glutathione synthesis inhibitor buthionine sulfoximin e, gluconeogenesis from ascorbate is stimulated. The participation of the non-oxidative branch of the pentose phosphate pathway has been demonstrated by the administration of oxythiamine, a thiamine antagonist which inhibits transketolases. In hepatocytes gained from oxythiamine-treated mice glucose production from dehydroascorbate is lower, and a pentose phosphate cycle intermediate, xylulose-5-phosphate is accumulated. This path of ascorbate catabolism could be demonstrated even in cells unable to synthesize ascorbate, i.e., in cells of human origin and in non-hepatic murine cells. In murine and human erythrocytes-which are unable to synthesize glucose (glucose-6-phosphatase is lacking)-ascorbate or dehydroascorbate addition resulted in the increase of lactate, the end product of anaerobic glycolysis. Lactate production could be stimulated by the addition of menadione or inhibited by oxythiamine treatment of the cells indicating that the pentose phosphate pathway is involved in as corbate catabolism both in hepatocytes and in erythrocytes. These results show that ascorbate does not get lost but is effectively reutilized even in case of diminished recycling and it should be taken into account not only as a vitamin, but also as a source of energy. (Banhegyi, Braun, Csala, Puskas, Mandl, 1997) It would be hard to identify the metabolites of Vit c in the 1H nmr spectrum of urine after a prolonged high dosage of vitamin C as figure 6 shows a large peak of unmetabolised Vit c which is excreted in the urine. This peak, surrounded by intermediates of the pathway which breaks down ascorbate acid, dominates the 1H nmr spectrum and masks weaker signals. Therefore the metabolites which are produced by the breakdown of some of the Vit c are hard to identify. The common feature which persists throughout the degradative pathway is the CH2-CH molecular unit which is part of all the intermediates within the pathway, and this is the bit that gives the NMR fingerprint. This is shown in figure 6 with several smaller peaks around the Vit C peak. These are the intermediates of the pathway which contain the CH2-CH molecule which is present in the parent ascorbate acid and therefore have a similar structure and appear as peaks around Vit C. These will probably be intermediates in the pathway w hich breaks down ascorbate acid and contain the same CH2-CH molecular unit intact that was present in the parent ascorbate structure Comment on the human bodys requirement for vitamin C, its role in prevention/treatment of disease (briefly), the required daily intake/doseage, etc. How does this relate to the results dicussed above? Recommendations for vitamin C intake have been set by various national agencies: 75 milligrams per day: the United Kingdoms Food Standards Agency The key importance of Vitamin C is supporting the immune system and forming a structural component known as collagen. It is also required for synthesis of the neurotransmitter, required for brain function and mood change. Vitamin C aids in synthesis of a small molecule, carnitine. Carnitine is required for fat transportation to cellular organelles known as mitochondria, potentially, producing energy. Vitamin C has the ability to enhance bodys resistance to varied diseases. It aids in stimulating the action of antibodies and immune cells like phagocytes, resulting in a stronger immune system. Vitamin C metabolite L-threonic acid or its calcium salt, calcium threonate (the form of L-threonic acid found in Ester-C), increases vitamin C uptake of cells. Essentially, with calcium threonate, vitamin C has been shown to be absorbed more quickly, reach higher levels and is excreted more slowly. Now the studies confirm that the vitamin C uptake of the cells is greater with the metabolite L-threonic acid present. identify the advantages and disadvantages of using NMR over other common analytical methods used in Biomedical Sciences (or elsewhere). In NMR spectroscopy, only a very small excess of the spins are in the low energy state. The net result of this is that NMR is rather insensitive technique relative to many other analytical methods. Typically, even todays spectrometers require a minimum of several nanomoles of material for anaylsis in reasonable times. Poor sensitivity has been the bane of bioanalytical uses of NMR and increasing NMR sensitivity has been the focus of most of the technical developments that have occurred over the past four decades. However, in contrast to the low intrinsic sensitivity in the applications of NMR to biofluids, the non-selectivity of NMR makes it a very powerful tool for surveying the molecular content of a sample without prejudging which analytes to search for. This advantage can also be a nuisance. Scarce analytes often need to be measured and although above the limit of detection, these lower level species may be fully or partially obscured by analytes at much higher concentrations. (Gadian, 2004) A comparison of NMR spectroscopy with HPLC shows a variety of advantages of NMR over HPLC method. The primary advantage of NMR is its efficiency due to the lack of any preparation times. The analyte has to be weighed and dissolved in the solvent only and afterwards the analyte can be measured immediately. The experimental time depends on the concentration of the analyte. Using HPLC for the determination of an analyte much time has to be spent for the equilibration of the column. The column has to be washed every day after the measurements have been taken to prolong the lifetime of the column. When using the HPLC technique, often much time has to be spent for sample preparation e.g. derivatization of the analyte. A further disadvantage is the large amount of solvent necessary for the HPLC separation. NMR is also more efficient than the conventional HPLC techniques. (Wawer, Holzgrabe, Diehl, 2008)